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Zeller Group
metaG_course_2021_10_07
Commits
088854e0
Commit
088854e0
authored
Sep 30, 2021
by
Jakob Wirbel
Browse files
upload comparative metagenomics practical (including the solutions to the exercises).
parent
4ad1bae1
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13
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comp_practical/README.md
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088854e0
---
title
:
"
Comparative
Metagenome
Analysis
-
de.NBI
Summer
School
2021"
output
:
html_document
:
toc
:
yes
toc_float
:
yes
number_sections
:
yes
keep_md
:
true
df_print
:
paged
author
:
"
Jakob
Wirbel
and
Georg
Zeller"
---
In this practical, we are going to explore statistical testing methods for
metagenomic data, how to visualize the results, and how to train machine
learning models using the
`SIAMCAT`
package.
# Setup
## Preparing the R environment
In order to get started, we should first prepare our
`R`
environment and load
the packages we will need later on. Additionally, the data used in this
practical are stored on the EMBL servers and we can set the base path for the
downloads.
```
r
library
(
"tidyverse"
)
# for general data wrangling and plotting
library
(
"SIAMCAT"
)
# for statistical and ML analyses
data.location
<-
'https://embl.de/download/zeller/metaG_course/'
```
## Loading the Data
In this practical, we are going to have a look at the data from
[
Zeller et al. _MSB_ 2014
](
https://doi.org/10.15252/msb.20145645
)
. In this
study, the authors recruited patients with
**colorectal cancer (CRC)**
and
**healthy controls (CTR)**
and performed shotgun metagenomic sequencing
of fecal samples. The raw data have already been pre-processed and analyzed
with the
[
mOTUs2
](
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-08844-4
)
taxonomic
profiler.
### Features
First, we are going to load the taxonomic profiles and store them as a matrix.
```
r
fn.feat.fr
<-
paste0
(
data.location
,
'/motus_profiles/FR-CRC.motus'
)
tax.profiles
<-
read.table
(
fn.feat.fr
,
sep
=
'\t'
,
quote
=
''
,
comment.char
=
''
,
skip
=
61
,
stringsAsFactors
=
FALSE
,
check.names
=
FALSE
,
row.names
=
1
,
header
=
TRUE
)
tax.profiles
<-
as.matrix
(
tax.profiles
)
```
The taxonomic profiles contain absolute counts and can easily be transformed
into relative abundances using the
`prop.table`
function:
```
r
rel.tax.profiles
<-
prop.table
(
tax.profiles
,
2
)
```
### Metadata
Additionally, we also need the information which sample belongs to which group.
Therefore, we are loading the metadata table as well:
```
r
fn.meta.fr
<-
paste0
(
data.location
,
'/metadata/meta_FR-CRC.tsv'
)
df.meta
<-
read_tsv
(
fn.meta.fr
)
df.meta
```
<div
data-pagedtable=
"false"
>
<script
data-pagedtable-source
type=
"application/json"
>
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</div>
```
r
table
(
df.meta
$
Group
)
##
## ADA CRC CTR NAA
## 15 53 61 27
```
We are interested in the comparison between control samples (
`CTR`
) and
colorectal cancer samples (
`CRC`
), so we first remove the other samples,
which represent advanced adenoma (
`ADA`
) or non-advanced adenoma (
`NAA`
).
Also, we transform the metadata into a data.frame object (which is easier
for some analyses later on).
```
r
df.meta
<-
df.meta
%>%
filter
(
Group
%in%
c
(
'CRC'
,
'CTR'
))
%>%
as.data.frame
()
rownames
(
df.meta
)
<-
df.meta
$
Sample_ID
# restrict the taxonomic profiles to CRC and CTR samples
tax.profiles
<-
tax.profiles
[,
rownames
(
df.meta
)]
rel.tax.profiles
<-
rel.tax.profiles
[,
rownames
(
df.meta
)]
```
## Feature Filtering
Currently, the matrix of taxonomic profiles contains
`14.213`
different
bacterial species. Of those, not all will be relevant for our question, since
some are present only in a handful of samples (low prevalence) or at extremely
low abundance. Therefore, it can make sense to filter your taxonomic profiles
before you begin the analysis. Here, we could for example use the maximum
species abundance as a filtering criterion. All species that have a relative
abundance of at least
`1e-03`
in at least one of the samples will be kept,
the rest is filtered out.
```
r
species.max.value
<-
apply
(
rel.tax.profiles
,
1
,
max
)
f.idx
<-
which
(
species.max.value
>
1e-03
)
rel.tax.profiles.filt
<-
rel.tax.profiles
[
f.idx
,]
```
Additionally, the mOTUs2 profiler can also estimate how much of the relative
abundance cannot be classified. We also filter out this share of "Unknown".
```
r
# unclassified are indicated by -1 in the mOTUs2 profiles
idx.um
<-
which
(
rownames
(
rel.tax.profiles.filt
)
==
'-1'
)
rel.tax.profiles.filt
<-
rel.tax.profiles.filt
[
-
idx.um
,]
```
# Association Testing
## Association Testing with the Wilcoxon
Now that we have set up everything, we can test all microbial species
for statistically significant differences. In order to do so, we perform a
Wilcoxon test on each individual bacterial species.
```
r
p.vals
<-
rep_len
(
1
,
nrow
(
rel.tax.profiles.filt
))
names
(
p.vals
)
<-
rownames
(
rel.tax.profiles.filt
)
stopifnot
(
all
(
rownames
(
df.meta
)
==
colnames
(
rel.tax.profiles.filt
)))
for
(
i
in
rownames
(
rel.tax.profiles.filt
)){
x
<-
rel.tax.profiles.filt
[
i
,]
y
<-
df.meta
$
Group
t
<-
wilcox.test
(
x
~
y
)
p.vals
[
i
]
<-
t
$
p.value
}
head
(
sort
(
p.vals
))
## Fusobacterium nucleatum subsp. animalis [ref_mOTU_v25_01001]
## 1.072932e-07
## Dialister pneumosintes [ref_mOTU_v25_03630]
## 5.047528e-06
## Hungatella hathewayi [ref_mOTU_v25_03436]
## 3.079069e-05
## Olsenella sp. Marseille-P2300 [ref_mOTU_v25_10001]
## 2.283988e-04
## Clostridium sp. [ref_mOTU_v25_03680]
## 2.756465e-04
## [Eubacterium] eligens [ref_mOTU_v25_02375]
## 3.395879e-04
```
The species with the most significant effect seems to be _Fusobacterium
nucleatum_, so let us take a look at the distribution of this species:
```
r
species
<-
'Fusobacterium nucleatum subsp. animalis [ref_mOTU_v25_01001]'
df.plot
<-
tibble
(
fuso
=
rel.tax.profiles.filt
[
species
,],
label
=
df.meta
$
Group
)
df.plot
%>%
ggplot
(
aes
(
x
=
label
,
y
=
fuso
))
+
geom_boxplot
(
outlier.shape
=
NA
)
+
geom_jitter
(
width
=
0.08
)
+
xlab
(
''
)
+
ylab
(
'F. nucleatum rel. ab.'
)
```
<!-- -->
Let us remember that log-scales are important when visualizing relative
abundance data!
```
r
df.plot
%>%
ggplot
(
aes
(
x
=
label
,
y
=
log10
(
fuso
+
1e-05
)))
+
geom_boxplot
(
outlier.shape
=
NA
)
+
geom_jitter
(
width
=
0.08
)
+
xlab
(
''
)
+
ylab
(
'log10(F. nucleatum rel. ab.)'
)
```
<!-- -->
## Association Testing with SIAMCAT
We can also use the
`SIAMCAT`
R package to test for differential abundance and
produce standard visualizations.
```
r
library
(
"SIAMCAT"
)
```
Within
`SIAMCAT`
, the data are stored in the
`SIAMCAT`
object which contains
the feature matrix, the metadata, and information about the groups you want to
compare.
```
r
sc.obj
<-
siamcat
(
feat
=
rel.tax.profiles
,
meta
=
df.meta
,
label
=
'Group'
,
case
=
'CRC'
)
## + starting create.label
## Label used as case:
## CRC
## Label used as control:
## CTR
## + finished create.label.from.metadata in 0.038 s
## + starting validate.data
## +++ checking overlap between labels and features
## + Keeping labels of 114 sample(s).
## +++ checking sample number per class
## +++ checking overlap between samples and metadata
## + finished validate.data in 0.412 s
```
We can use
`SIAMCAT`
for feature filtering as well:
```
r
sc.obj
<-
filter.features
(
sc.obj
,
filter.method
=
'abundance'
,
cutoff
=
1e-03
)
## Features successfully filtered
sc.obj
<-
filter.features
(
sc.obj
,
filter.method
=
'prevalence'
,
cutoff
=
0.05
,
feature.type
=
'filtered'
)
## Features successfully filtered
sc.obj
## siamcat-class object
## label() Label object: 61 CTR and 53 CRC samples
## filt_feat() Filtered features: 839 features after abundance, prevalence filtering
##
## contains phyloseq-class experiment-level object @phyloseq:
## phyloseq@otu_table() OTU Table: [ 14213 taxa and 114 samples ]
## phyloseq@sam_data() Sample Data: [ 114 samples by 13 sample variables ]
```
Now, we can test the filtered feature for differential abundance with
`SIAMCAT`
:
```
r
sc.obj
<-
check.associations
(
sc.obj
,
detect.lim
=
1e-05
,
fn.plot
=
'./associations.pdf'
)
```
<!-- -->
# Exercises: Visualization
*
What could be a good effect size for microbiome data? Calculate the fold
change between groups and plot a volcano plot. What do you observe?
*
The associations metrics computed by
`SIAMCAT`
are stored in the
`SIAMCAT`
object and can be extracted by using
`associations(sc.obj)`
, if you want to
have a closer look at the results for yourself. Plot a volcano plot of the
associations between cancer and controls using the output from
`SIAMCAT`
.
*
**Optional**
Create a ordination plot for our data and colour the samples
by group. How would you interpret the results? Try out different ecological
distances. How does the choice of distance affect the group separation?
(
**Tip**
: make sure to check out the
`vegdist`
function in the
**vegan**
package and also the
`pco`
function in the
**labdsv**
package)
# Machine Learning with SIAMCAT
## Machine Learning Workflow
The
`SIAMCAT`
machine learning workflow consists of several steps:
```
{=html}
<div id="htmlwidget-f52cba1b1f81bcb363e8" style="width:672px;height:480px;" class="grViz html-widget"></div>
<script type="application/json" data-for="htmlwidget-f52cba1b1f81bcb363e8">{"x":{"diagram":"\ndigraph siamcat_workflow {\n\n # a \"graph\" statement\n graph [overlap = true, fontsize = 10]\n\n # several \"node\" statements\n node [shape = box,\n fontname = Helvetica,\n label=\"filter.features\"]\n C\n\n node [shape = box,\n fontname = Helvetica,\n label=\"normalize.features\"]\n F\n\n node [shape = box,\n fontname = Helvetica,\n label=\"create.data.split\"]\n G\n\n node [shape = box,\n fontname = Helvetica,\n label=\"train.model\"]\n H\n\n node [shape = box,\n fontname = Helvetica,\n label=\"make.predictions\"]\n I\n\n node [shape = box,\n fontname = Helvetica,\n label=\"evaluate.prediction\"]\n J\n\n node [shape = box,\n fontname = Helvetica,\n label=\"model.evaluation.plot\"]\n K\n\n node [shape = box,\n fontname = Helvetica,\n label=\"model.interpretation.plot\"]\n L\n\n # several \"edge\" statements\n C->F\n F->G G->H H->I I->J J->K\n J->L\n }\n","config":{"engine":"dot","options":null}},"evals":[],"jsHooks":[]}</script>
```
Since we already created a
`SIAMCAT`
object and filtered the raw data, we can
start directly with the next step.
## Normalization
`SIAMCAT`
offers a few normalization approaches that can be useful for
subsequent statistical modeling in the sense that they transform features in
a way that can increase the accuracy of the resulting models. Importantly,
these normalization techniques do not make use of any label information
(patient status), and can thus be applied up front to the whole data set
(and outside of the following cross validation).
```
r
sc.obj
<-
normalize.features
(
sc.obj
,
norm.method
=
'log.std'
,
norm.param
=
list
(
log.n0
=
1e-05
,
sd.min.q
=
0
))
## Features normalized successfully.
sc.obj
## siamcat-class object
## label() Label object: 61 CTR and 53 CRC samples
## filt_feat() Filtered features: 839 features after abundance, prevalence filtering
## associations() Associations: Results from association testing
## with 11 significant features at alpha 0.05
## norm_feat() Normalized features: 839 features normalized using log.std
##
## contains phyloseq-class experiment-level object @phyloseq:
## phyloseq@otu_table() OTU Table: [ 14213 taxa and 114 samples ]
## phyloseq@sam_data() Sample Data: [ 114 samples by 13 sample variables ]
```
## Cross Validation Split
Cross validation is a technique to assess how well an ML model would generalize
to external data by partionining the dataset into training and test sets.
Here, we split the dataset into 10 parts and then train a model on 9 of these
parts and use the left-out part to test the model. The whole process is
repeated 10 times.
```
r
sc.obj
<-
create.data.split
(
sc.obj
,
num.folds
=
10
,
num.resample
=
10
)
## Features splitted for cross-validation successfully.
```
## Model Training
Now, we can train a
[
LASSO logistic regression classifier
](
https://www.jstor.org/stable/2346178
)
in order to distinguish CRC cases and controls.
```
r
sc.obj
<-
train.model
(
sc.obj
,
method
=
'lasso'
)
## Trained lasso models successfully.
```
## Predictions
This function will automatically apply the models trained in cross validation
to their respective test sets and aggregate the predictions across the whole
data set.
```
r
sc.obj
<-
make.predictions
(
sc.obj
)
## Made predictions successfully.
```
## Model Evaluation
Calling the
`evaluate.predictions`
function will result in an assessment of
precision and recall as well as in ROC analysis, both of which can be plotted
as a pdf file using the
`model.evaluation.plot`
function (the name of/path to
the pdf file is passed as an argument).
```
r
sc.obj
<-
evaluate.predictions
(
sc.obj
)
## Evaluated predictions successfully.
model.evaluation.plot
(
sc.obj
,
fn.plot
=
'./eval_plot.pdf'
)
## Plotted evaluation of predictions successfully to: ./eval_plot.pdf
```
## Model Interpretation
Finally, the
`model.interpretation.plot`
function will plot characteristics
of the models (i.e. model coefficients or feature importance) alongside the
input data aiding in understanding how / why the model works (or not).
```
r
model.interpretation.plot
(
sc.obj
,
consens.thres
=
0.7
,
fn.plot
=
'./interpretation_plot.pdf'
)
## Successfully plotted model interpretation plot to: ./interpretation_plot.pdf
```
# Exercise: Prediction on External Data
On the EMBL cluster, there is another dataset from a colorectal cancer
metagenomic study. The study population was recruited in Austria, so you can
find the data under:
```
r
fn.feat.at
<-
paste0
(
data.location
,
'/motus_profiles/AT-CRC.motus'
)
fn.meta.at
<-
paste0
(
data.location
,
'/metadata/meta_AT-CRC.tsv'
)
```
*
Apply the trained model on this dataset and check the model performance
on the external dataset. (
**Tip**
: Check out the help for the
`make.prediction`
function in
`SIAMCAT`
)
*
Train a
`SIAMCAT`
model on the Austrian dataset and apply it to the French
dataset. How does the model transfer on the external dataset compare between
the two datasets? Compare also the feature weights when training on the French
or Austrian dataset.
**Note**
: You can supply several
`SIAMCAT`
objects to the function
`model.evaluation.plot`
and compare two ROC curves in the same plot.
# Exercise: Taxonomic vs Functional Predictors
In addition to the taxonomic profiles, we also created functional profiles
for the French dataset. You can find it under:
```
r
fn.feat.fr.kegg
<-
paste0
(
data.location
,
'/functional_profiles/KEGG_kos_FR-CRC.tsv'
)
```
*
Explore the distribution of the functional data (abundance distribution,
prevalence, etc.) and compare it to what you observe with the taxonomic
profiles. Which filtering regime would make sense for functional data?
*
Use
`SIAMCAT`
to train a model based on the functional KEGG profiles and
compare it to the one trained on taxonomic profiles.
**Note**
Since the functional profiles will have many thousands features,
it makes sense to perform feature selection on your dataset. You can
supply the parameters for the feature selection to the
`train.model`
function
in
`SIAMCAT`
.
# Further Information
You can find more information about
`SIAMCAT`
on https://siamcat.embl.de
or on Bioconductor under
https://www.bioconductor.org/packages/release/bioc/html/SIAMCAT.html
There you can also find several vignettes which go into more detail about
different applications for
`SIAMCAT`
.
# SessionInfo
```
r
sessionInfo
()
## R version 4.0.5 Patched (2021-06-20 r80721)
## Platform: x86_64-apple-darwin17.0 (64-bit)
## Running under: macOS Big Sur 10.16
##
## Matrix products: default
## BLAS: /Library/Frameworks/R.framework/Versions/4.0/Resources/lib/libRblas.0.dylib
## LAPACK: /Library/Frameworks/R.framework/Versions/4.0/Resources/lib/libRlapack.dylib
##
## locale:
## [1] en_US.UTF-8/en_US.UTF-8/en_US.UTF-8/C/en_US.UTF-8/en_US.UTF-8
##
## attached base packages:
## [1] stats graphics grDevices utils datasets methods base
##
## other attached packages:
## [1] DiagrammeR_1.0.6.1 SIAMCAT_1.13.0 phyloseq_1.34.0 mlr_2.19.0
## [5] ParamHelpers_1.14 forcats_0.5.1 stringr_1.4.0 dplyr_1.0.7
## [9] purrr_0.3.4 readr_2.0.0 tidyr_1.1.3 tibble_3.1.3
## [13] ggplot2_3.3.5 tidyverse_1.3.1
##
## loaded via a namespace (and not attached):
## [1] colorspace_2.0-2 ellipsis_0.3.2 XVector_0.30.0
## [4] fs_1.5.0 rstudioapi_0.13 farver_2.1.0
## [7] bit64_4.0.5 fansi_0.5.0 lubridate_1.7.10
## [10] xml2_1.3.2 codetools_0.2-18 splines_4.0.5
## [13] PRROC_1.3.1 knitr_1.33 ade4_1.7-17
## [16] jsonlite_1.7.2 pROC_1.17.9999 gridBase_0.4-7
## [19] broom_0.7.9 cluster_2.1.1 dbplyr_2.1.1
## [22] compiler_4.0.5 httr_1.4.2 backports_1.2.1
## [25] assertthat_0.2.1 Matrix_1.3-2 cli_3.0.1
## [28] visNetwork_2.0.9 prettyunits_1.1.1 htmltools_0.5.1.1
## [31] tools_4.0.5 igraph_1.2.6 gtable_0.3.0
## [34] glue_1.4.2 reshape2_1.4.4 LiblineaR_2.10-12
## [37] fastmatch_1.1-3 Rcpp_1.0.7 parallelMap_1.5.1
## [40] Biobase_2.50.0 cellranger_1.1.0 jquerylib_0.1.4
## [43] vctrs_0.3.8 Biostrings_2.58.0 rhdf5filters_1.2.1
## [46] multtest_2.46.0 ape_5.5 nlme_3.1-152
## [49] iterators_1.0.13 xfun_0.24 rvest_1.0.1
## [52] lifecycle_1.0.0 XML_3.99-0.6 beanplot_1.2
## [55] zlibbioc_1.36.0 MASS_7.3-53.1 scales_1.1.1
## [58] vroom_1.5.3 hms_1.1.0 parallel_4.0.5
## [61] biomformat_1.18.0 rhdf5_2.34.0 RColorBrewer_1.1-2
## [64] BBmisc_1.11 curl_4.3.2 yaml_2.2.1
## [67] gridExtra_2.3 sass_0.4.0 stringi_1.7.3
## [70] highr_0.9 S4Vectors_0.28.1 corrplot_0.90
## [73] foreach_1.5.1 checkmate_2.0.0 permute_0.9-5
## [76] BiocGenerics_0.36.1 shape_1.4.6 matrixStats_0.60.0
## [79] rlang_0.4.11 pkgconfig_2.0.3 evaluate_0.14
## [82] lattice_0.20-41 Rhdf5lib_1.12.1 htmlwidgets_1.5.3
## [85] labeling_0.4.2 bit_4.0.4 tidyselect_1.1.1
## [88] plyr_1.8.6 magrittr_2.0.1 R6_2.5.0
## [91] IRanges_2.24.1 generics_0.1.0 DBI_1.1.1
## [94] pillar_1.6.1 haven_2.4.1 withr_2.4.2
## [97] mgcv_1.8-34 survival_3.2-10 modelr_0.1.8
## [100] crayon_1.4.1 utf8_1.2.2 tzdb_0.1.2
## [103] rmarkdown_2.9 progress_1.2.2 grid_4.0.5
## [106] readxl_1.3.1 data.table_1.14.0 vegan_2.5-7
## [109] infotheo_1.2.0 reprex_2.0.0 digest_0.6.27
## [112] stats4_4.0.5 munsell_0.5.0 glmnet_4.1-2
## [115] bslib_0.2.5.1
```
comp_practical/comparative_metagenome_analysis.Rmd
0 → 100644
View file @
088854e0
---
title
:
"Comparative Metagenome Analysis - de.NBI Summer School 2021"
output
:
html_document
:
toc
:
yes
toc_float
:
yes
number_sections
:
yes
keep_md
:
true
df_print
:
paged
author
:
"Jakob Wirbel and Georg Zeller"
---
In
this
practical
,
we
are
going
to
explore
statistical
testing
methods
for
metagenomic
data
,
how
to
visualize
the
results
,
and
how
to
train
machine
learning
models
using
the
`
SIAMCAT
`
package
.
```{
r
setup
,
include
=
FALSE
}
knitr
::
opts_chunk
$
set
(
collapse
=
TRUE
)
```
#
Setup
##
Preparing
the
R
environment
In
order
to
get
started
,
we
should
first
prepare
our
`
R
`
environment
and
load
the
packages
we
will
need
later
on
.
Additionally
,
the
data
used
in
this
practical
are
stored
on
the
EMBL
servers
and
we
can
set
the
base
path
for
the
downloads
.
```{
R
prep
,
message
=
FALSE
}
library
(
"tidyverse"
)
#
for
general
data
wrangling
and
plotting
library
(
"SIAMCAT"
)
#
for
statistical
and
ML
analyses
data
.
location
<-
'https://embl.de/download/zeller/metaG_course/'
```
##
Loading
the
Data
In
this
practical
,
we
are
going
to
have
a
look
at
the
data
from
[
Zeller
et
al
.
_MSB_
2014
](
https
://
doi
.
org
/
10.15252
/
msb
.20145645
).
In
this
study
,
the
authors
recruited
patients
with
**
colorectal
cancer
(
CRC
)**
and
**
healthy
controls
(
CTR
)**
and
performed
shotgun
metagenomic
sequencing
of
fecal
samples
.
The
raw
data
have
already
been
pre
-
processed
and
analyzed
with
the
[
mOTUs2
](
https
://
doi
.
org
/
10.1038
/
s41467
-
019
-
08844
-
4
)
taxonomic
profiler
.
###
Features
First
,
we
are
going
to
load
the
taxonomic
profiles
and
store
them
as
a
matrix
.
```{
R
load_data
,
message
=
FALSE
,
warning
=
FALSE
}
fn
.
feat
.
fr
<-
paste0
(
data
.
location
,
'/motus_profiles/FR-CRC.motus'
)
tax
.
profiles
<-
read
.
table
(
fn
.
feat
.
fr
,
sep
=
'\t'
,
quote
=
''
,
comment
.
char
=
''
,
skip
=
61
,
stringsAsFactors
=
FALSE
,
check
.
names
=
FALSE
,
row
.
names
=
1
,
header
=
TRUE
)
tax
.
profiles
<-
as
.
matrix
(
tax
.
profiles
)
```
The
taxonomic
profiles
contain
absolute
counts
and
can
easily
be
transformed
into
relative
abundances
using
the
`
prop
.
table
`
function
:
```{
R
rel_ab
}
rel
.
tax
.
profiles
<-
prop
.
table
(
tax
.
profiles
,
2
)
```
###
Metadata
Additionally
,
we
also
need
the
information
which
sample
belongs
to
which
group
.
Therefore
,
we
are
loading
the
metadata
table
as
well
:
```{
R
load_metadata
,
message
=
FALSE
}
fn
.
meta
.
fr
<-
paste0
(
data
.
location
,
'/metadata/meta_FR-CRC.tsv'
)
df
.
meta
<-
read_tsv
(
fn
.
meta
.
fr
)
df
.
meta
table
(
df
.
meta
$
Group
)
```
We
are
interested
in
the
comparison
between
control
samples
(`
CTR
`)
and
colorectal
cancer
samples
(`
CRC
`),
so
we
first
remove
the
other
samples
,
which
represent
advanced
adenoma
(`
ADA
`)
or
non
-
advanced
adenoma
(`
NAA
`).
Also
,
we
transform
the
metadata
into
a
data
.
frame
object
(
which
is
easier
for
some
analyses
later
on
).
